MONITORING OF CALCIUM AND FLUORIDE IN DRINKING WATER ROUND AL-DHALEA DISTRICT, AL-DHALEA GOVERNORATE- YEMEN

Download
Fadhl Ahmed Muthanna Al-Mahrabi1,*, Alfadhel Mahmoud Yosuf 2, Mubarak Dirar Abdullah3

1College of Graduate Studies, University of AL-butana.

1 College of Graduate Studies, University of AL-butana.

2 Physics Department, Faculty of Education, Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of AL-butana.

3 Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Sudan University of Science and Technology.

* Corresponding author: almehrabi19@gmail.com

HNSJ, 2021, 2(10); https://doi.org/10.53796/hnsj21025

Published at 01/10/2021 Accepted at 25/09/2021

Abstract

Water is an essential for life, it provides humans with many useful salts and minerals, but if exceeds or decreases the permissible limit, it causes health risks. Many health problems appeared in the study area related to calcium and fluoride that present in drinking water. The study aimed to determine the amount of calcium and fluoride in drinking water to access healthy and safe drinking water, using palintest photometer 7500. The results were expressed that Fluoride concentration in Al-Dhalea district differed from one region to another according to the geographical location and the source of the water, also found the physical parameter in permissible limit except in turbidity in Thowbah piped water exceeded to 31 NTU. In spectroscopically parameter found the highest concentration of fluoride in Al-Raibi Hajr well, while the highest concentrations of calcium and total hardness in Al-Dawlah Habil Alsooq well. The study recommends the population to avoid drinking from polluted water and water that contains high concentrations of metals, because it is dangerous to health. The study also obtained that Al-Shalal water station is the best water between samples selected for analysis. Which most of its specifications correspond to Yemen parameter limit except a small concentration in some element.

Key Words: Calcium, Fluoride, total hardness, palintest photometer.

عنوان البحث

تحديد الكالسيوم والفلوريد في مياه الشرب بمديرية الضالع بمحافظة الضالع – اليمن

فضل احمد مثنى المحرابي 1 * الفاضل محمود يوسف 2 مبارك ضرار عبدالله 3

1 كلية الدراسات العليا جامعة البطانة.

2 قسم الفيزياء ، كلية التربية ، كلية الدراسات العليا ، جامعة البطانة.

3ـ قسم الفيزياء بكلية العلوم جامعة السودان للعلوم والتكنولوجيا.

* المؤلف المراسل: almehrabi19@gmail.com

HNSJ, 2021, 2(10); https://doi.org/10.53796/hnsj21025

تاريخ النشر: 01/10/2021م تاريخ القبول: 25/09/2021م

المستخلص

الماء عنصر أساسي في الحياة، يقوم بتزويد الإنسان بالعديد من الأملاح والمعادن المفيدة، ولكنها إذا زادت أو نقصت عن الحد المسموح به تسبب خطرا على الصحة. ظهرت مشاكل صحية كثيرة في منطقة الدراسة تتعلق بعنصرَي الكالسيوم والفلورايد المتواجدة في مياه الشرب. هدفت الدراسة إلى تحديد تركيز الكالسيوم والفلورايد في مياه الشرب للحصول على مياه شرب صحية وآمنة باستخدام المقياس الطيفي Palintest 7500. أظهرت نتائج الدراسة أن تركيز الفلورايد في مديرية الضالع يختلف من منطقة إلى أخرى حسب الموقع الجغرافي ومصدر المياه، وجد أيضا أن البارامترات الفيزيائية في الحد المسموح به ما عدا العكارة في مشروع مياه ثوبة تجاوزت الحد المسموح به إلى 31 NTU. في تحليل البارامترات الطيفية وجد أن أعلى تركيز للفلورايد في بئر الريبي حجر بينما أعلى تركيز للكالسيوم والقساوة الكلية للماء في بئر الدولة حبيل السوق. أوصت الدراسة السكان بتجنب الشرب من المياه الملوثة والمياه التي تحتوي على تركيزات من المعادن؛ لأنها تشكل خطورة على صحتهم، كما وجدت الدراسة إلى أن محطة مياه الشلال هي أفضل مياه من بين العينات المختارة للتحليل حيث تتوافق معظم مواصفاتها مع الحدود المسموح به في اليمن عدا تراكيز بسيطة في بعض العناصر.

Introduction:

Water is one of the main natural resources that God gave to man for the continuation of existence. (Ayegbo, 2021) it is in continuous movement on, above, and below the surface of the earth. (Oni, 2020) it is one of the main important abiotic components of the environment, for human use is obtainable as surface and ground water. (JIMA, S., 2019) Access to a safe and reliable supply of drinking water is essential for the wellbeing of all human beings. However, the availability of fresh water is getting scarce let alone its quality, which becomes a major issue in world. (Idris, 2018) Even though water may be clear, it does not necessarily mean that it is safe for us to drink. must be considered Microbiological, Chemical and Physical parameters, Safe drinking water should be low in concentrations of toxic chemicals, Clear, Tasteless and colourless. (Oni, 2020) Yemen is a water-scarce country, situated in an arid region with no permanent rivers. The annual per capita share of renewable water resources does not exceed 150 cubic meters. The country’s rapid population growth is putting more strain on water supplies while human development levels remain low, making it difficult to increase adaptive capacity and resilience to water shortages and other climate change related impacts. (United Nations, 2016) Water supply and sanitation in Yemen is characterized by many challenges as well as some achievements. A key challenge is severe water scarcity, especially in the Highlands, prompting The Times of London to write “Yemen could become the first nation to run out of water”. (Asthana, 2009) In Yemen less than half the population living in rural areas has access to safe drinking water, another important cause of malnutrition in Yemen. Access to health facilities – a key determinant of both household food security status and the nutritional well-being of its women and children – is also greatly limited in rural areas. (United Nation, 2011)

Before taking samples from study area, mad interview with number of persons and Specialized doctors, to know the problem that the study area suffers from it, they said there is a large spread of dental fluorosis and bone curvature due to the increased concentration of fluoride in some areas, while other areas suffer from kidney stones. Generally, the interview gave me an overall image of the study area and its threatening causes. So, it helped me for further analytical study by taking samples from chosen locations.

Geology of study area

The rocks found in Al-Dhalea district- Al-dhalea governorate from cretaceous age, which are known as sandstone. It also contains basalt, dacite and pyroclastic covering large parts of district, the area is also covered with acidic sediments such as granite rocks located in the southeastern part, and it consists of sand and gravels of different size. The ground water consists of two layers, upper aquifer and deeper aquifer. But this water drains quickly after the rainy season. (Al-Amry, 2020)

Drinking water sources in study area

The chief sources of water in general are rain water, sea water, ground water and surface water. The main drinking water sources in study area for the majority (72.4%) of households are either water tankers (trucks) or open wells (both protected and unprotected), while only 11.2% of households are using piped water. Whereas 16.4% using other sources such as: Bottled water, covered or uncovered rain water. Only 38.6% of households are using improved water sources and 21.9% are using unimproved sources, while 39.5% are using unclassified sources (tankers, community points (Sabeel) and bottled water) Household which are not using bottled water have been asked for treatment of water before drinking. To determine the quality of drinking water in any water system, several parameters must be checked and water quality monitored, especially in open systems that are used for human and industrial purposes.

various institutions, associations, organizations and health agencies have proposed the standards at international level for acceptable potable water such as: World Health Organization (WHO), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and American Public Health Association (APHA) as follow:

Table (1): WHO, ICMR, BIS, and U.S. EPA Drinking Water Standard (WHO, 2011; ICMR, 1975; BIS, 2012, U.S. EPA, 2009)

Parameter WHO ICMR BIS EPA Yemen limit
Colour Desirable Limit NG NG 5 Colour units 5 Colour units 5Colour units
Permissible limit NG NG 15 Colour units 15 Colour units 15Colour units
PH Desirable Limit 7 – 8.5 7 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5
Permissible limit 6.5 – 9.2 6.5 – 9.2 NG NG NG
Turbidity Desirable Limit 5 NTU 5 NTU 1 NTU NG 1 NTU
Permissible limit 25 NTU 25 NTU 5 NTU NG 15 NTU
Calcium Desirable Limit 75 75 75 75 75
Permissible limit 200 200 200 200 200
Fluoride Desirable Limit 0.7 1 1 1 0.5
Permissible limit 1.5 1.5 1.5 105 1.5
Magnesium Desirable Limit 30 50 30 NG 30
Permissible limit 150 150 100 NG 150
Chloride Desirable Limit 200 200 250 250 200
Permissible limit 600 1000 1000 NG 600
Iron Desirable Limit 0.3 0.1 0.3 NG 0.3
Permissible limit 1.0 1.0 1.0 NG 1.0
Sulfate Desirable Limit 200 200 200 250 200
Permissible limit 400 400 400 450 400
Bicarbonate Desirable Limit 500 500 500 NG 100
Permissible limit NG NG NG NG 500
Total Hardness Desirable Limit 300 300 200 NG 100
Permissible limit 500 600 600 NG 500
TDS Desirable Limit 500 500 500 500 500
Permissible limit 1500 1500 2000 1500 1500
Sodium Desirable Limit 200 NG NG NG 200
Permissible limit 400 NG NG NG 400

Materials and Method:

Study Area: The study area located in the southwest of Al-Dhalea District, the coordinate lies between latitude: 13° 41′ 44″ N and longitude: 44° 43′ 52″ E.

Fig. (1): Map of study area

Sample collection, preparation and physical parameter measurement: Thirty of drinking water samples were collected from several wells in multiple locations of the study area, surface and ground water. The samples were taken between July 11, 2021 to August 15, 2021. To determine the physical and spectroscopical parameters; samples were collected from the study area by bottles of 1500 ml capacity, each sample bottles were washed with the same well drinking water from which the sample was taken before filling to make the results more accurate and avoid any error in the results. the samples were analyzed for physical parameters such as: Turbidity, and PH. For spectroscopically parameters such as: Electrical Conductivity, Total Dissolved Salts, fluoride, sulphates, nitrate, iron, manganese, Phosphate, total alkalinity, bicarbonate, carbonate, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chlorides, sodium, potassium, magnesium hardness, and potassium hardness. The materials used for executing the experiment for this thesis work are sampling bottles to take samples from the drinking water sources, pH meter, conductivity meter, digital turbidity meter and palintest photometer 7500.

For determination of spectroscopical parameter, Palintest Photometer 7500 was turned on, choose the specific wavelength for the type of examination to be analyzed by changing the specific filter, then zero the photometer by using sample blank (plain sample without adding tablet indicator) in cuvette. For the analysis 10 ml test tubes were filled with the water sample and the palintest water test tablets were added, after their solution was left to stand for the specified time to allow for full color development, for the determination of concentrations of any parameter; reading was taken directly from the photometer screen.

Fig (2): Palintest photometer 7500 Fig (3): Fill test tube with sample

Fig (4): conductivity meter

Results and discussion:

Results

results showed variations in the physical and spectroscopical parameters of drinking water in study area. Water quality varies from location to location, according to the geographical location and source of water. The table (4) shows the names of the wells, their numerical arrangement, and the results of the physical parameters. While the table (5) shows results of spectroscopical parameters of samples.

Table (4): name of wells and results of physical parameters of Al-Dhalea district

Sample code Location Turbidity PH
1 – 15 NTU 6.5-8.5
S1 Al-Shallal Water Station 0.92 7.76
S2 Al-Wa’arah 1.4 7.9
S3 Mohammad Muthanna Galas 1.25 8
S4 Thowbah piped water 31 7.6
S5 Al-Tafwah piped water 0.01 7.65
S6 Al-Demnah piped water 1.03 8.2
S7 Al-Mrkoolah piped water 1.8 7.75
S8 Aldhubyyat & Laghwal piped water 2.5 7.5
S9 bin La’ram Zubaid 11.6 7.55
S10 Al-Hmeera’ 1.83 7.60
S11 Al-Houd Association 2.04 7.90
S12 Dhakhar piped water 24 7.75
S13 Al-Riyashi Al-Ushry 13 7.60
S14 Ali Abdullah Al-Jarba 1.52 7.45
S15 Al-Ribat Lakmat Salah 2.3 7.60
S16 Ba Abbad Ghool Sumeed 1.3 7.9
S17 Al-Sha’ab ground water 1.05 7.4
S18 Hezam Dhi-Herran 1.9 7.6
S19 Al-Dawasah Alsurafi 1.11 7.75
S20 Hkaref Ghool Sabolah 3.54 7.45
S21 Ali Musaed Algleelah 5.52 7.7
S22 Al-areefah Alseelah 3.72 7.5
S23 Fathi Alghaimani 4.76 7.55
S24 Nabeel Muthanna Sanah 0.94 7.6
S25 Antar Al-Daragah 1.36 7.55
S26 Amed Kuraish Albajh 0.91 8.10
S27 Mohamed Kasem Bajah 1.2 7.90
S28 Al-Dawlah Habil Alsooq 1.54 7.75
S29 Aqmat Alewah Alshreefah 1.11 7.70
S30 Al-Raibi Hajr 1.23 7.80
Average 4.25 7.70
STD 7.01 0.20
Min 0.01 7.40
Max 31 8.2

Table (5): Results of spectroscopical parameters of Al-Dhalea district

Parameter
Sample Code E. Conductivity TDS F- SO4-2 NO3- Fe+2 Mn+2 PO4-3 T.alka HCO3-
S1 190 124 0.9 25 7.6 0.6 0.001 0.23 30 35
S2 1052 684 1.06 175 7.6 0.1 0.003 0.23 30 35
S3 1053 686 1.5 170 10.4 0.10 0.005 0.17 45 55
S4 1351 878 11.2 180 4.4 0.05 0.019 0.18 215 264
S5 1340 871 12 175 12 0.6 0.013 0.12 200 245
S6 857 557 0.52 79 62 0.100 0.002 0.14 245 300
S7 845 549 1.34 140 15.2 0.10 0.010 0.36 105 125
S8 890 579 1.5 72 16 0.15 0.006 0.13 310 380
S9 1390 904 4 185 11.2 0.6 0.018 0.18 60 75
S10 1109 721 0.27 118 10 0.05 0.004 0.10 295 360
S11 1500 975 0.79 185 60 0.20 0.005 0.24 35 40
S12 604 393 0.47 70 1.6 0.40 0.020 0.20 60 70
S13 655 426 0.4 58 8 0.65 0.008 0.15 230 280
S14 1710 1112 1.00 195 88 0.10 0.004 0.15 260 315
S15 4160 2704 1.15 195 350 0.1 0.001 0.13 240 295
S16 1320 858 1.11 185 0.4 0.05 0.002 0.12 370 450
S17 1205 783 0.52 170 96 0.05 0.001 0.14 250 305
S18 1065 692 0.95 195 8 0.1 0.005 0.13 270 330
S19 1945 1264 0.41 190 154 0.3 0.002 0.13 300 370
S20 1160 754 0.98 150 20 0.15 0.001 0.15 295 355
S21 3100 2015 0.74 195 46 0.10 0.005 0.10 285 350
S22 720 468 0.3 112 10 0.05 0.003 0.14 200 245
S23 1600 1040 0.65 195 134 0.1 0.008 0.13 195 240
S24 4820 3133 2.22 190 112 0.2 0.001 0.13 340 410
S25 1560 1014 0.48 150 104 0.1 0.003 0.11 350 420
S26 740 481 0.58 150 22 0.3 0.001 0.11 195 240
S27 1730 1125 11.4 190 0.8 0.15 0.011 0.17 285 350
S28 5580 3627 2.82 190 470 0.9 0.01 0.13 230 280
S29 1100 715 2.34 175 88 0.3 0.005 0.15 275 335
S30 1715 1115 13 180 9.2 0.4 0.012 0.28 60 70
Average 1602.20 1041.57 2.55 154.63 64.61 0.24 0.01 0.16 208.67 254.13
STD 1234.24 802.19 3.82 48.50 105.0 0.22 0.01 0.06 105.46 128.88
Min 190.00 124.00 0.27 25.00 0.40 0.05 0.00 0.10 30.00 35.00
Max 5580 3627 13 195 470 0.9 0.02 0.36 370 450
Yemen limits 450-2500 650-1500 0.5-1.5 200-400 45-50 0.3-1 0.1-0.2 0.4-5 150-500 150-500
Parameter
Sample Code CO3-2 T.Hard Ca+2 Mg+2 Cl- Na K. hard Ca. hard Mg
S1 20 5 0.4 1 200 153 3.2 1 4
S2 15 340 19.2 71.2 425 217.4 2.3 48 292
S3 30 85 14 12 475 371.4 2.9 36 49
S4 130 620 23 137 475 209 9 58 562
S5 120 380 19 81 425 277 10.4 47 333
S6 150 340 56 48.5 450 286 1.6 141 199
S7 60 190 44 20 450 320 4 109 81
S8 190 520 144 39 475 246 4.2 361 159
S9 35 230 95 7.32 450 303 3.8 200 30
S10 180 390 93 38.3 475 321.2 4.3 233 157
S11 20 105 15 16.6 450 349 5.6 37 68
S12 35 80 19 8 450 316.4 2.9 47 33
S13 135 200 59 13 350 269 0.5 147 53
S14 155 760 170 80.5 475 172 3.4 430 330
S15 145 1000 180 134 450 37 2.4 450 550
S16 220 360 34 67 475 402 3.1 86 274
S17 150 450 102 48 475 298 3 254 196
S18 165 350 40 61 475 365 3.3 99 251
S19 180 520 65 87 475 298 2.6 163 357
S20 175 370 89 36 500 362 2 222 148
S21 170 800 83 144 375 100 1.9 208 592
S22 120 250 57 26 475 339 3.1 143 107
S23 115 640 150 63.4 425 165 2.5 380 260
S24 200 960 91 179 295 273 2.2 227 733
S25 210 550 134 52.4 425 256 3 335 215
S26 120 340 87 30 265 177 3.9 218 122
S27 170 60 10 8.3 475 561 11 26 34
S28 140 2350 246 423 305 27.3 4.3 616 1734
S29 165 370 112 22 475 349 4.7 281 89
S30 30 55 8 8.5 500 413 9.5 20 35
Average 125.00 455.67 75.29 65.43 429.67 274.42 4.02 187.43 268.23
STD 63.68 441.96 60.24 81.56 74.28 112.88 2.60 150.93 334.44
Min 15.00 5.00 0.40 1.00 200.00 27.30 0.50 1.00 4.00
Max 220 2350 246 423 500 561 11 616 1734
Yemen limits 150 -200 100-500 75-200 30-150 200-600 200 20 50-250 50-250

Discussion

Comparing the average of physical parameters in Al-Dhalea District with Yemen limits as a reference show that parameters such as turbidity and PH within normal limit. Table (4) in results shows physical parameters for all samples, found PH within normal for all wells with average 7.70mg/l, STD 0.20, Minimum 7.40 mg/l and Maximum 8.2 mg/l, also the turbidity within normal with average 4.25 NTU, STD 7.01, Minimum 0.01 and Maximum 31 NTU Except in Thowbah piped water 31 NTU.

Table (6): Ave., STD, Min and Max for physical parameters in Al-Dhalea district.

Descriptive statistic Parameter Turbidity PH
Yemen limits 1 – 15 NTU 6.5-8.5
Average 4.25 7.70
STD 7.01 0.20
Min 0.01 7.40
Max 31 8.2

Fig. (5): graph of physical parameter in Al-Dhalea district

Discussion of Spectroscopical parameters

In this discussion, will be discuss the results of fluoride and calcium and their related parameter in drinking water that is total hardness. The table (5) in results shows spectroscopical parameters for all samples, also shows the descriptive statistics to average, standard deviation, minimum and maximum for spectroscopical parameters in the study area.

In this discussion, will discuss each parameter separately in order to know its concentration in each well of study area, and compare the results between the wells of the study area.

In Al-Dhalea district, the concentration of fluoride differed from one region to another according to the geographical location and the source of the water. Generally, the average concentration of fluoride exceeds WHO and Yemen limits that is 2.55 mg/l, STD 3.82 and minimum 0.27 mg/l (sample 10) and maximum 13 mg/l (sample 30). These results indicate that there are results in normal limit, also results below the normal limits, while others exceed the Permissible limit.

Table (5) indicates that there are 18 wells in Al-Dhalea district within the normal range of Yemen limits of fluoride concentration, samples are (1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25 and 26), also there are 4 wells less than minimum limits that are: (10, 13, 19 and 22) with concentrations (0.27 mg/l, 0.4 mg/l, 0.41 mg/l and 0.3 mg/l) respectively, these low concentrations lead to teeth decay. while 8 wells exceeded the permissible limit, some of them are less dangerous and contain fluoride between 1.5 to 4 mg/ l, which are (9, 24, 28 and 29) with concentrations (4 mg/l, 2.22 mg/l, 2.82 mg/l, 2.34 mg/l) respectively. The remaining 4 wells contain fluoride at concentrations more than 4 mg/l, they are more dangerous to the population that are: (4, 5, 27 and 30) with concentrations (11.2 mg/l, 12.0 mg/l, 11.4 mg/l and 13.0 mg/l) respectively, these lead to skeletal fluorosis and curvature of bone.

Generally, the calcium concentration in most wells is less than the normal of WHO and Yemen limit. But due to the presence of high concentrations in some wells, it was found that the average concentration is within the critical minimum limit. the table (5) indicates the average concentration of calcium is 75.29 mg/l, STD 60.24, minimum 0.40 mg/l (sample 1) and maximum 246 mg/l (sample 28). indicates that there are results in normal limit, also results below the normal limits, while others exceed the Permissible limit.

The table (5) indicates that there are 13 wells In Al-Dhalea district within the normal range of Yemen limits of calcium concentration, samples are: (8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 17, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26 and 29), but there are 16 wells less than normal limits that are: (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11,12, 13, 16,18,19, 22, 27, 30) with concentrations (0.4 mg/l, 19.2 mg/l, 14 mg/l, 23 mg/l, 19 mg/l, 56 mg/l and 44 mg/l, 15 mg/l, 19 mg/l, 59 mg/l, 34 mg/l, 40, mg/l, 57 mg/l, 10 mg/l, and 8 mg/l) respectively, in this district only one well exceed the Permissible limit with concentration 246 mg/l.

There is a relationship between calcium concentration in water and total water hardness according to the following equation:

CaCO3 = 2.5 [Ca2 +] + 4.1 [Mg2+]

Therefore, it is necessary to discuss results of total hardness as one of the water parameters affected by calcium.

In Al-Dhalea district, the table (5) indicates that the average concentration of total hardness lies in the normal limits of WHO and Yemen limits that is 455.67 mg/l, STD 441.96, minimum 5.0 mg/l (sample 1) and maximum 2350 mg/l (sample 28).

The table (5) indicates that there are 15 wells In Al-Dhalea district within the normal range of Yemen limits of total hardness concentration, samples are: (2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 26 and 29), but there are 5 wells less than normal limits that are: (1, 3, 12, 27 and 30) with concentrations (5 mg/l, 85 mg/l, 80 mg/l, 60 mg/l and 55 mg/l) respectively, While the remaining 10 wells are exceeded the Permissible limit which are: (4, 8, 14, 15, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25 and 28) with concentrations (620 mg/l, 520 mg/l, 760 mg/l, 1000 mg/l, 520 mg/l, 800 mg/l, 640 mg/l, 960, 550 mg/l and 2350 mg/l) respectively.

Fig (6): Graph of Spectroscopical parameter in Al-Dhalea district

Conclusion:

The results indicate that, the physical parameters of drinking water of Al-Dhalea district lies within normal of Yemen limits with PH average 7.70 and turbidity average 4.25 NTU, except turbidity of Thowbah piped water exceed the permissible Yemen limit to 31 NTU.

Fluoride concentration in Al-Dhalea district differed from one region to another according to the geographical location and the source of the water, the results show that the average concentration of fluoride exceed Yemen limit to 2.55 mg/l and STD 3.82. The study found that, Al-Raibi Hajr well contains the highest concentration of fluoride in study area with 13mg/l, while Al-Humeera’ well contains the lowest concentration with 0.27 mg/l.

Calcium concentration in most wells less than normal limit but the average concentration lies in critical minimum limit 75.29 mg/l. Al-Dawlah Habil Alsooq well contains the highest concentration of calcium with 246mg/l, while Al-Shalal water station contains the lowest concentration with 0.40 mg/l.

Total hardness in drinking water of Al-Dhalea district has average in the normal of Yemen limit with 455.67 mg/l. Al-Dawlah Habil Alsooq well contains the highest concentration of total hardness, while Al-Shalal water station contains the lowest concentration with 5.0 mg/l.

The study recommends the population to avoid drinking from polluted water and water that contains high concentrations of metals, because it is dangerous to health. The study also obtained that Al-Shalal water station is the best water between samples selected for analysis. Which most of its specifications correspond to Yemen parameter limit.

References

[1]- Al-Amry, A.S., Habtoor, A. and Qatan, A., 2020. Hydrogeochemical characterization and environmental impact of fluoride contamination in groundwater from Al-Dhala basin, Yemen. Electronic Journal of University of Aden for Basic and Applied Sciences, 1(1), pp.30-38.

[2]- Asthana, Anushka, 2009. The Times. London

http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article6883051. Missing or empty |title= (help)

[3]- Ayegbo, K.S., Ogundipe, K.E., Olimaro, G., Ajimalofin, A.D. and Akinwumi, I.I., 2021. March. Water Quality of Selected Sachet Water Brands Sold in Sango-Ota, Nigeria. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 1036, No. 1, p. 012011). IOP Publishing.

[4]- Azzuni, A., 2015. Design, implementation, and evaluation of an online water quality monitoring system in Lake Saimaa, Finland.

[5]- BIS, 2012. Bureau of Indian Standards, Indian Standards specification for drinking water IS10500, Second Revision, New Delhi, India

[6]- Cotruvo J, Bartram J, eds, WHO, 2009. Calcium and Magnesium in Drinking-water, Public health significance, ISBN 978 92 4 156355 0, NLM classification: QV 276 Printed in Spain

[7]- David R. Lide, 2004, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 84 Edition, Copyright CRC Press LLC, USA

[8]- ICMR, 1975. Indian Medical Council of Medical Research, Manual of Standards of quality of drinking water

[9]- Idris, I.M., Younis, Y.M.E. and Elbeshir, A.M., 2018. Assessment of Drinking Water Quality Status of Butana Mining Sites, Eastern Sudan via Determination of Physicochemical Parameters and Heavy Metal Concentration Levels (I).

[10]- JIMA, S., 2019. EVALUATION OF DRINKING WATER QUALITY AT SULULTA TOWN (Doctoral dissertation, ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY).

[11]- Murray, J.J. and World Health Organization, 1986. Appropriate use of fluorides for human health. World Health Organization.

[12]- OCHA, 2014. Al-Dhalea Governorate Base map with Elevation. Sources: GoY/MoLA/CSO

[13]- Oni, O., Alewo, I.A., Chindo, I., Hassan, F. and Oguike, R.S., 2020. Water Quality Assesement Using the Wagtech Palintest Kit a Case Study of Some Selected Communities in Darazo Local Government Area, Bauchi State, Nigeria.

[14]- Scientific Committee for Food, 1993. Nutrient and energy intakes for the European Community. Reports of the Scientific Committee for Food, thirty-first series, Commission of the European Communities.

[15]- U.S. EPA, 2009, National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, Office of groundwater and drinking water

[16]- unicef, 20 to 25 August 2016, Nutrition Survey Report Al Dhalea Governorate, Yemen

[17]- United Nation, 2011. Common country assessment, Republic of Yemen

[18]- United Nations, 2016. Third United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, Republic of Yemen NATIONAL REPORT, – HABITAT III -, Quito/ Ecuador

[19]- WHO, 2011. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, 4th edn., Cover designed by WHO Graphics, Switzerland, Typeset by Value Chain, India, Printed in Malta by Gutenberg, ISBN 978 92 4 154815 1, NLM classification: WA 675.